What Led to the Boston Tea Party

In essence, the Boston Tea Party — a pivotal event in American history — was an act of American colonial defiance to â€Å"taxation without representation.† The American colonists, who were not represented in Parliament, felt Great Britain was unequally and unjustly taxing them for the costs of the French and Indian War.   In December 1600, the East India Company was incorporated by English royal charter to profit from trade with East and Southeast Asia; as well as India. Although it was originally organized as a monopolistic trading company, over a period of time it became more political in nature. The company was very influential, and its shareholders included some of the most prominent individuals in Great Britain. Originally, the company controlled a large area of India for trade purposes and even had its’ own army to protect the Company’s interests. In the mid-18th century, tea from China became a very valuable and important import displacing cotton goods. By 1773, the American colonists were consuming an estimated 1.2 million pounds of imported tea each year. Well aware of this, the war-strapped British government sought to make even more money from the already-lucrative tea trade by imposing tea taxes onto the American colonies.   Decrease of Sales of Tea in America In 1757, the East India Company began to evolve into a ruling enterprise in India after the Company’s army defeated Siraj-ud-daulah, who was the last independent Nawab (governor) of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey. Within a few years, the Company was collecting revenues for the Mughal Emperor of India; which should have made the East India Company very wealthy. However, the famine of 1769-70 reduced India’s population by as much as one-third along with the costs associated with maintaining a large army placed the Company on the verge of Bankruptcy. In addition, the East India Company had been operating at a significant loss due to a tremendous decrease in sales of tea to America. This decline had begun in the mid-1760s after the high cost of British tea drove some American colonists to start a profitable industry of smuggling tea from the Dutch and other European markets. By 1773 nearly 90% of all tea sold in America was being imported illegally from the Dutch. The Tea Act In response, the British Parliament passed the Tea Act on April 27, 1773, and on May 10, 1773, King George III placed his royal assent on this act. The major purpose of the passage of the Tea Act was to keep the East India Company from going bankrupt. Essentially, the Tea Act lowered the duty the Company paid on tea to the British government and in doing so gave the Company a monopoly on the American tea trade allowing them to sell directly to the colonists. Thus, East India Tea became the cheapest tea to be imported to the American colonies. When the British Parliament proposed the Tea Act, there was a belief that the colonists would not object in any form to being able to purchase cheaper tea. However, Prime Minister Frederick, Lord North, failed to take into consideration not only the power of the colonial merchants who had been cut out as middlemen from the sales of tea but also the way the colonists would view this act as â€Å"taxation without representation.† The colonists viewed it this way because the Tea Act intentionally left in place a duty on tea that entered the colonies yet it removed the same duty of tea that entered England. After the enactment of the Tea Act, the East India Company shipped its’ tea to several different colonial ports, including New York, Charleston, and Philadelphia all of which refused to allow the shipments to be brought ashore. The ships were forced to return to England. In December 1773, three ships named the Dartmouth, the  Eleanor, and the  Beaver arrived in Boston Harbor carrying East India Company tea. The colonists demanded that the tea is turned away and sent back to England. However, the Massachusetts Governor, Thomas Hutchinson, refused to heed to the colonists’ demands. Dumping 342 Chests of Tea Into the Boston Harbor On December 16, 1773, members of the Sons of Liberty, many dressed in disguise as Mohawk Indians, boarded three British ships docked in Boston harbor and dumped 342 chests of tea into the chilly waters of Boston Harbor. The sunken chests held over 45 tons of tea, worth almost  $1 million today. Many believe the colonists’ actions had been spurred by the words of Samuel Adams during a meeting at the Old South Meeting House. In the meeting, Adams called on colonists from all towns surrounding Boston to â€Å"be in readiness in the most resolute manner to assist this Town in their efforts for saving this oppressed country.† The incident famously known as the Boston Tea Party was one of the leading acts of defiance by colonists that would come to full fruition a few years later in the Revolutionary War. Interestingly enough, General Charles Cornwallis, who surrendered the British army to General George Washington at Yorktown on October 18, 1871, was the governor-general and commander in chief in India from 1786 until 1794. Updated by Robert Longley

Nucleophilic Substitution SN1-SN2 - 749 Words

The nucleophilic substitution SN1/SN2 typically occur in a competitive regime. There are various conditions that define the predominant reaction mechanism taking place. Since SN1 leads to the racemic mixture, SN2 is more popular in asymmetric organic synthesis. So, detailed computational studies of model SN2 reactions have been carried out during the last three decades[2-6, 9]. The influence of solvation of the nucleophile with several common solvents on the rate constant of the reactions F-(Sn) + CH3Cl → CH3F + Cl-(Sn) where S is a solvent molecule and n=0-3, was studied experimentally (flowing plasma mass spectroscopy) by Bohm and Raksit[2] . The results of their work are summarized in Table 1: Table 1. Rate constants measured for reactions of solvated fluoride ions at room temperature in the gas-phase. Values of kr are given in units of 10-9 cm3mol-1s-1. F-Sn kr at different n 0 1 2 3 F-(D2O)n 1.9 0.015 0.0003 0.003 F-(CH3OH)n 1.9 0.0006 0.0003 0.0003 F-(CH3CH2OH)n 1.9 0.0003 0.0003 - It is clear that the solvation slowers the reaction at least 100 times. This work suggests the existence of higher barriers on the potential energy surface for the solvated nucleophile. Morokuma[3], using HF/3-21G level of theory, showed that the solvation in protic polar solvents (such as water or alcohols) increases the activation energy accordingly to the number of solvent molecules, which form hydrogen bonds with the nucleophile. (see Figure 1) Doi et al.[4] studiedShow MoreRelatedReac 714 Studying Sn1 and Sn2 Reactions: Nucleophilic Substitution at Saturated Carbon1644 Words   |  7 PagesStudying SN1 and SN2 Reactions: Nucleophilic Substitution at Saturated Carbon Date of Experiment: February 6, 2008 Objective: The objective of this laboratory experiment is to study both SN1 and SN2 reactions. The first part of the lab focuses on synthesizing 1-bromobutane from 1-butanol by using an SN2 mechanism. The obtained product will then be analyzed using infrared spectroscopy and refractive index. The second part of the lab concentrates on how different factors influence the rate of SN1 reactionsRead MoreEffect Of An Alkyl Group And Solvent On The Rate Of Sn1 And Oxidation700 Words   |  3 Pageseffects that an alkyl group and solvent have on the rate of SN1 and SN2 reactions. Two separate mechanisms can be used to perform the nucleophilic substitution of alkyl halides: SN1 and SN2. A SN1 reaction, or unimolecular displacement, is a 1st order, nucleophilic substitution that involves two steps. The rate law for this reaction, Rate = k[Rx], doesn’t include the nucleophile in it.1 These two step reactions have a carbocation intermediate. SN1 reactions work best when the central carbon has as m anyRead MoreIntroduction Of A Primary Alcohol1537 Words   |  7 PagesSubstitution 5. Introduction In this experiment, a primary alcohol was converted into a primary bromoalkane using hydrobromic acid. The reaction was done under reflux and then distilled to obtain a product of higher purity. The degree of the alkyl halide obtained from the experiment was tested with silver nitrate and sodium iodide. An infrared (IR) spectra and the weight of the product were obtained for further analysis. The IR gave information on the present functional groups and product weightRead MoreRelative Reactivity Of Alkyl Halides1435 Words   |  6 Pages Relative Reactivity of Alkyl Halides in Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions Charlie Doyle Madison McGough Annie Chang â€Æ' Introduction Both Sn1 and Sn2 reactions are nucleophilic substitution reactions, though they are slightly different. Sn2 reactions have bimolecular displacement and are also concerted, meaning the bond making and the bond breaking processes happen in one step.1 Sn1 reactions require two steps and have unimolecular displacement. This difference canRead MoreThe Substitution Mechanisms ( Sn1 And Sn2 ) With Reactions2391 Words   |  10 Pagesrelate nucleophilic substitution mechanisms (SN1 and SN2) with reactions that involved converting alcohol-containing compounds to alkyl halides. This experiment was conducted by combining the initial alcohol with reagents and heating under reflux when necessary. It was determined that mechanistic pathways of substitution depend principally on the structure of the initial alcohol; that is, substrate is considered primary, secondary, or tertiary. Synthesis of 1 (46%) was achieved through SN2 mechanismRead MoreTaking a Look at Nucleophilic Reactions2127 Words à ‚  |  9 PagesNucleophilic reactions occur when there is an electron pair donor and an electron pair acceptor (2). There are two types of ways that nucleophilic reactions occur. There is the SN1 reaction and the SN2 reaction. An SN1 is a two-step reaction that occurs when a molecule first forms a carbocation. Once the carbocation is formed, the nucleophile comes in and attaches to the molecule (2). Below is a general reaction scheme of an SN1 reaction: Below is the mechanistic scheme of SN1: In an SN2 reactionRead MorePreparation of T-Butyl-Chloride2026 Words   |  9 Pageshydrochloric acid. The reaction occurs via nucleophilic substitution, in which a nucleophile replaces the leaving group in the substrate. In this case, the hydroxyl group of t-butyl alcohol is replaced by a chlorine atom. The reaction proceeds via Sn1mechanism. The second part of the experiment consisted of purification of t-butyl chloride using the distillation process. A nucleophile is any neutral or uncharged molecule with an unshared pair of electrons. In the substitution reaction, the nucleophile donatesRead MoreSubstitution Reactions ( Sn2 And Sn )1623 Words   |  7 Pagesthe substitution reactions (Sn2 and Sn) were utilized by helping with which functional groups reacted, in which way. Developing a mechanism for the alcohols are discussed. This journal inspects the substitution reactions occurring in the alcohol-containing compounds. When a substitution reaction transpires, it substitutes one sigma (ÏÆ') bond with another sigma (ÏÆ') bond. In substitution reactions, there are two types that are focused when working with organic molecules, Sn1 and Sn2. A Sn1 reactionRead MoreRelative Reactivity of Alkyl Halides Essay2247 Words   |  9 PagesRelative Reactivity of Alkyl Halides Introduction Nucleophilic substitution of alkyl halides can proceed by two different mechanisms – the SN2 and the SN1. The purpose of the experiment was to identify the effects that the alkyl group and the halide-leaving group have on the rates of SN1 reactions, and the effect that the solvent has on the rates of SN1 and SN2 reactions. The SN1 mechanism is a two-step nucleophilic substitution, or unimolecular displacement. In the first step of the mechanismRead MoreRelativities of Alkyl Halides in Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions647 Words   |  3 PagesTitle: Relativities of Alkyl Halides in Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions Introduction: The purpose of this lab was to perform a comparison of relative reactivities of various alkyl halides with two different reagents, sodium iodine in acetone and silver nitrate in ethanol. (Below are the reaction equations). We used different substrates, which were primary, secondary, and tertiary. These substrates included 2-bromobutane, 2-bromo-2-methylpropane, 1-bromobutane ∞-Bromotoluene, bromobenzene

Law and Legal Instrumentalism free essay sample

Law, a set of coherent rules and values within a society, is a human process. As such, it is crucial to approach its application within society in a pragmatic and realistic sense rather than a formal one, which views law as a set of mechanical and abstract principles. A legal realist approach on law takes into account extra-legal factors which help shape how law is used within a social context. This approach does not view the discipline of law as a literal set of principles to be formally detected and applied, but recognizes that the interpretation of law by legal actors is manipulated by situational factors. BrianTamanaha in Law as a Means to an End: Threat to the Rule of Law examines how law, originally understood as an â€Å"instrumental to serve the social good†, is now just a mere instrument to further the goals and agendas of those who have access in its use (Tamanaha, 4). In essence, the notion of a common â€Å"social good† is no longer a qualifiable condition of law. In a complex, multi-faceted society, it is optimistic to presume that there is a true identifiable social good. Thus, lawyers, legislatures, judges and other legal actors are capable of using law to further their personal or collective political, social and economic interests. Tamanaha examines the ways in which legal actors, specifically cause litigants and judges, instrumentally exercise law. Thus, the term instrumentalism, a form of legal realism, is a pragmatic method which stems away from a formal application of law by critically examining cause litigation and judicial activism. Although law may be used as a mechanism to achieve a certain outcome, it is not used lawlessly and without merit as lawyers are advocating for a broad social cause and judges use law based on the merits of the constitution, given the benefit of time and postulated reason of their decision making. Brown, a case regarding segregation within the United States emerged with lawyers stirring up lawsuits by informing African American citizens of their legal rights (Tamanaha 159). The process of instigating litigation was previously prohibited in common law practice; it was not professionally ethical for lawyers to set lawsuits in motion. However, it became increasingly common for lawyers to achieve change in public policy and legislation by fighting for a specific cause within the judicial arena. This ethod was forward-looking in that the courts became a battle field for interest groups seeking remedial change; the decision of the law was not necessarily to compensate for any harm inflicted in the past, but to change the policy in the future. This expansion from the traditional bilateral litigation no longer was to award the affected parties with compensation, but became a method to attain a reformative decree (Tamanaha 161). Eventually, cause litigation was an encouraged means to a dvance societal goals, in the sectors of environment protection, political reform and mental health, to name a few (Tamanaha 160). Although such issues of public policy appear to benefit society as a whole, the intent of the cause lawyers who instigate such legal actions is questionable to Tamanaha. The lawyers in these situations are no longer amoral technicians of law, but individuals who seek their own ideological implementation (Tamanaha 156). The cause which lawyers strive towards becomes the primary concern, whereas the clients themselves are secondary, fulfilling the standing requirement before the court (Tamanaha 156). This can be very detrimental to the clients because they may not be aware of the consequences of their legal actions. For instance, Baehr v. Lewin, 1993 was a successful lawsuit brought forth to legalize same-sex marriage in Hawaii. Although the litigants won, the ultimate consequence was detrimental; following it was a series of amendments nation-wide which prohibited same-sex marriage (Tamanaha 167). The battlefield within the court became not a place to determine legal rights, but a remedial catalyst in public policy. Such political battles focus on adversarial ideologies rather than legal rules and merit. However, the work of cause litigants cannot be narrowly categorized as one that is purely self-serving. More often than not, cause lawyers instigate lawsuits by informing the oppressed and disadvantaged of their rights. By doing so, they use law to encourage political change to the otherwise uninformed public. These causes often grow to become social movements as it â€Å"provides the basis for a sustained series of interactions between power holders and persons successfully claiming to speak on behalf of a constituency lacking formal representation (Austin 2)†. This formal epresentation demands change from the power holders with a strong backing of social support. Often, these groups lack the resources and skills which lawyers can provide, offering their advice to enlighten the marginalized group to â€Å"initiate and nurture political mobilization† (Austin 4). The instrumental use of law by judges is immensely threatening to the judicial system and to a democratic soc iety as a whole. Judges who use law to achieve a certain outcome undermines the rule of law. The legal system requires that judges be objective arbitrators of the law. As independent bodies, it is essential that they remain impartial in their decision making and delegate based on rule, and not personal preferences (Tamanaha 227). This is a crucial aspect of the rule of law, which binds the action of the state to pre-fixed rules, placing judges equal under and before the law, just as all other subjects of society. The rule of law ensures transparency and predictability which prevents the government from ruling coercively. It is an essential component to a democratic state. However, when judges decide a cases, they may be inclined to achieve a particular result. In essence, they are using laws to achieving another end, namely one that strengthens their own ideological beliefs and interests. Whether it is a certain political philosophy or a particular social policy which they seek, arbitrarily decided cases and manipulated law enforcement defeats the characteristics of the judicial branch of the state. Because there is no particular hierarchy of values, judges are able to promote some while extinguishing others. The general terms of legal rules allows judges to focus on the consequences of their decision. Their decisions will naturally be based on their political affiliations or ideological tendencies. Consequently, it is difficult to believe that judges are truly impartial in decision making. The result of judicial activism is that private attitudes become public law (Tamanaha 234). Furthermore, the procedural process of the case takes a backwards approach; the decision is made first, then it is justified by the legal rules which judges find applicable (Tamanaha 236) Nevertheless, there is a certain form of procedure which judges are bound to. Although values are not ranked hierarchically, there are two forms of rights obtained from the constitution: specified rights and secondary rights (Bork 17). The latter is of utmost importance as it addresses the values held by the constitution, such as the right to vote or procedures in criminal processing, all which the courts need to protect (Bork 17). The former alludes to the principled rules which the original framers of the text intended to convey (Bork 17). Because constitutional law does not have a concrete theoretical premise on which adjudicators are required to base their decision making processes on, they are founded on neutral principles. That is, issues are addressed based on general principles postulated on reason to ensure that conflicting values are not lawlessly chosen over one another (Bork 2). Granted, there are adversaries in the legal principles to which judges ascribe. Therefore, it is critical for the judges to recognize that in deciding cases, they are setting legal precedent, and therefore should have a firm belief that the values being applied are done so lawfully. These beliefs are in relation to the legal system as a whole, not their personal preferences (Bork 2). Ultimately, Bork’s concern lies not with the decisions made by judges but what makes their decisions legitimate. The courts essentially work as advocates for the minority who otherwise would have no say on the issue at hand. Helping the powerless realize their rights is a form of advocacy that judges take. It is not about undermining the rule of law, but giving opportunity to access the law (Bork 3). Nevertheless, it is crucial for judges to base their decisions off of neutral principles; just as principles and values cannot be applied lawlessly, they just the same cannot be defined lawlessly (Bork 8). The critical examination of judicial review goes beyond it’s obvious implications and expositions of undermining the rule of rule. It is unfair to presume that judges are completely unreasoned in their decision making. There is a level of predictability as judges are bound to legal precedent and cannot decide cases in an tyrannical manner. Although the courts are not elected officials who are granted the power to delegitimize legislation, they are in many ways better equipped in making such decisions. For instance, the courts are distanced from political or social pressure allows them to make sound decisions in a timely matter. Elected officials tend to act on expediency and pressure when it comes to making value-based decisions (Bickel 25). Essentially, they are inclined towards one side of the issue in order to appeal to the interest of the predominate voters, as opposed to abiding to the fundamental values of law (Bickel 25). Judges on the other hand make decisions far from societal pressures, with more leeway in terms of time. This gives the courts the ability to make more calculated decisions, taking into consideration not only the fundamental values of the state but also the unforeseen implications of a decision. (Bickel 26) In dealing with the pith and substance of a case, decisions are argued to be â€Å"sober second thoughts† (Bickel 26). Ultimately, the use of law within a judicial context by judges and lawyers is not an arbitrarily unfair process. Such legal actors are bound to the values of the laws within society. Such values are premised on the rule of law, the foundational concept of a democratic society. Cause litigants are often involved in social issues and advocate for those who require a formal delegate. These cause lawyers may use law in such a way to achieve a certain outcome, but this outcome results in change in public policy to those who are otherwise be unaware of their legal rights. Moreover, although judges may have their own social desires and political preferences, they cannot easily sway towards them. Their professional duty requires them to be consciously rule-bound and rely on the precedent. Further, the basis of their decision is on neutral principles. Such principles are not vague and abstract, but stem from the precedent of previous judges in common law. Instrumentalism is pragmatic in that it recognizes that law is not a math; there is not a formula which judges rely on. However, social movements and changes through the judiciary ensures that fresh insight is continuously brought about within society, giving room for social change and progress.

Lory Ice Religions of the WorldJournal 1 DATE @ & Essays - Religion

Lory Ice Religions of the WorldJournal 1 DATE \@ MMMM d, y January 15, 2017 I, Lory Ice, have read and understand the Religions of the World syllabus for this course. I understand that I am responsible for abiding by all policies outlined and described in the document. I understand that I am responsible for abiding by any and all policies for attendance, participation, and grading as outlined in the syllabus.I decided to take Religions of the World because I believe every student should be required to take some sort of a religion course during their undergraduate career. I feel like the skills that you would learn from studying religion could be valuable in everyday life. When taking a class like Religions of the World, one will not only gain a deeper understanding of their own religion, but also learn how to set aside their own beliefs and open themselves up to studying religions that are not their own, allowing you to relate to various people and cultures from a purely objective point of view. I believe this will be a facilitating and very enlightening course to study.As for myself, I grew up without being raised in church. I did however have a vague belief in God from growing up hearing bits and pieces about Him, and Jesus Christ. My mother had more of a religious view on life, where as my father had more of an agnostic view. We never really spoke about religion, but my mother would say things from time like, " Look at how beautiful God has made the world around us." I would just get this warm feeling when she spoke of these things, but I never really investigated or searched for God. I guess I just never really thought about that sort of thing. I was young and caught up in things like, the newest hairstyles and fashion trends.It wasn't until I became pregnant with my first child that I would feel Gods presence for the first time. I was nineteen years old, pregnant with my first child, and having to raise him on my own with no help from t he father. It was the scariest and most stressful thing I had ever had to deal with in my life. While I was trying to get a handle on the stress and emotions of my pregnancy, I felt this overwhelming urge to draw closer to God. Something about motherhood makes a woman really reflect on who she is and who she wants to be. I knew my future child would need a Godly mother, I also knew I fell far from that mark. This caused me to spend a lot of time reflecting on the characteristics of a Godly woman and how to become one. So I turned to church and tried to find answers to my many questions. I went to a few different churches, but was unsure of which church was the right church for me. I didn't want to end up going to the "wrong one." The thought of studying the wrong religion scared me, so I began to read about various religions, and leaders. All which claimed to have the "right" answers. The story, or rather myth, of Jesus Christ spoke to me in a way that the others did not. I was stil l, and to this day am still, wary of attending church. So I decided to buy a NIV Bible. I just read it myself, and tried to gain a better understanding of how to become a Godly woman. I am still to this day on my spiritual journey, and trying to figure it all out, by it I mean the truth. I'm taking it all one day at a time. Hence what sparked my interest in taking this class. I suppose however if someone asked me what religious group I belonged to, I would identify as a Christian. After reading the assigned chapters, I learned about two different groups and theories of religion. One group of people focused on the unique aspects of human culture to relate to supernatural beings, dentists, and forces. The other group focused on how religion functioned in its surrounding society. I also learned